The polymorphic effect of the DAT l gene and the number of sexual partners may be due an association found between certain polymorphisms and male premature penile ejaculation. A positive correlation of both DRD2 and the DATl polymorphisms were observed with pathological violence in adolescents in a blinded clinical trial.
Moreover, though initially conceptualized as resulting from peer imitation of child-onset or life-course-persistent youth, there is mounting evidence from twin studies that adolescent-onset or adolescent-limited antisocial behavior may also be genetically influenced.
Burt and Mikolajewski not only confirmed these findings with the DATl gene but extended these findings to include the HisTyr variant of the gene encoding the 5-HT2A receptor as well [], More recently, Jozkow et al.
Moreover, Sales, et al. It is known that polymorphisms in noncoding regions of the vasopressin la receptor gene Avpr la are linked to socio-emotional characteristics in humans, chimpanzees, and voles, and may due to a site-specific variation in gene expression. According to Barrett, et al. In fact, vasopressin la receptor VlaR signaling is necessary for the formation of the pair bond in males. Interestingly, social prairie voles exhibit greater VlaR binding in the reward processing ventral pallidum than do asocial voles of the same genus.
Barrett, et al. Other work by Garcia, et al. The DRD2 associations apply to both men and women, whereas the other links apply to women only. Finally, Emanuele, et al. A review of the literature reveals that a number of recent articles point out the importance of epigenetic effects on sexual activity.
For example, Matsuda reviewed the epigenetic changes of the estrogen receptor a ERalpha and influence on sociosexual behavior []. In fact, alteration of ER alpha gene activity mediated by epigenetic mechanisms, such as histone modifications and DNA methylation, alters one's sexual behaviors. In terms of homosexuality, Rice, et al. They explain that this model is based on epigenetic marks laid down in response to the XX vs.
XY karyotype in embryonic stem cells. Accordingly, these marks boost sensitivity to testosterone in XY fetuses and lower it in XX fetuses, thereby canalizing sexual development. Work by Gundersen [], and Wang, et al. Specifically, Wang, et al. This partner preference formation was associated with an upregulation of oxytocin receptor OTR, oxtr and vasopressin V la receptor VlaR, avprla in the NAc, through an increase in histone acetylation at their respective promoters.
There is interest growing evidence that indicates that females actively engage in polyandry either to avoid genetic incompatibility or to bias paternity in favor of genetically superior males. There is the possibility that selection of superior male fitness may be due epigenetic effects. According to Zeh and Zeh, unlike DNA sequence-based variation, epigenetic variation can be strongly influenced by environmental and stochastic effects experienced during the lifetime of an individual [].
They suggest that epigenetic variation may be important for the post-copulatory sexual selection and may account for findings linking sperm competitive ability to offspring fitness. Eysenck proposed a positive correlation between extraversion and intensified sexual behavior and between neuroticism and problems in sexual behavior anti-social behavior. An earlier study with married people did not show any of these correlations.
It was hypothesized that this connection exists only for unmarried persons not engaged in long-lasting relationships because the quality of the relationship determines the sexual interaction.
Within a sample of young unmarried men, there was a positive correlation between extraversion and items in which the person described earlier sexual activity with more individuals and in higher frequency. No correlation was found with neuroticism. There were also slight correlations with other personality and social attitude scales. Because of the correlation with an acting-out personality scale, the findings were interpreted from a social-psychological perspective.
In today's society, the young male is expected to take the initiative in a sexual interaction that an extraverted young male can realize better than one who is introverted [].
This perspective is in direct agreement with Richard Brodie's idea about selfish genes of the mind [75]. From the DNA's point of view, of course, anthropologists would agree 'we're still here for one reason only; to go forth and multiply. In fact, if there are genes that give people the tendency to take on memes that limit their number of offspring, they will die out in a few generations in favor of genes that give people a tendency to acquire children.
Although somewhat controversial, unfortunately, a number of studies suggest Homo sapiens over the last 42, years have lowered their IQs due to selective mating [76]. Smillie and associates studied and found that one copy of the DRD2 gene Al allele was associated with significantly higher extraversion [].
This association raises an interesting question in terms of human procreation. Comings suggested that because of their marked effect on reproductive behavior, learning disorders and other impulsive, compulsive, aggressive, and addictive disorders those carriers of the DRD2 Al have the potential to cause progressive and permanent changes in the frequency of the DRD2Al allele 'leading to the genetic meltdown of the species' [78].
In his book, Comings provides evidence that people with addictive-disruptive behaviors have children earlier, and this impacts the selection of addiction genes like the DRD2 Al allele [79].
He suggests that individuals carrying this disruptive risk allele will have children let's say at 20 years of age and individuals without this allele will have children at 25 years.
As a result, the mutant gene will reproduce faster, namely, every 20 years while the normal form of the gene will reproduce every 25 years. Thus, the rate at which a gene that has a 1. A difference of five years in the age of mothers or fathers when they have their first children is sufficient to result in a significant and relatively rapid selection for genes carried by group initiating childbearing at an earlier age.
Increases in some RDS behaviors have been documented from to the present. These increases include adolescent behavior syndrome drugs, sex, teen pregnancies, and delinquent behaviors, smoking , conduct disorder, crime, drug abuse, alcoholism, unprotected sexual behavior, unwed mothers, welfare, school expelled, and school dropouts, as well as a concomitant decrease in IQ [80]. Utilizing this information, Comings predicted that from to there will be a doubling of the frequency of, for example, the DRD2 Al allele, therefore increasing the prevalence of RDS behaviors, including precocious sexual intercourse [].
We encourage a follow-up of this interesting prediction. In spite of some disagreement, we are proposing hypersexuality disorder as a subtype of RDS sharing characteristics with substance and non-substance addictive behaviors with its clinical expression being partly affected by both genetics and epigenetics. Although untested at this time, we also propose short-term FDA-approved medication-assisted treatments MAT favoring blocking dopamine function followed by gentle activation of dopaminergic pathways leading to long-term dopamine homeostasis.
The latter could be accomplished by some modalities that may help in recovery. The figure illustrates interactive neurogenetic and epigenetic effects.
Both short-term dopamine blocking and long-term 'dopaminergic-homeostasis'-based treatments and dopamine boosting therapies and daily activities are listed. While we firmly believe that hypersexuality disorder should be included in future editions of DSM, we are somewhat perplexed that so little is known about this disorder in terms of neurogenetics and epigenetics and even withdrawal symptomatology and overall phenomenology [].
The prime take-home message is that we now encourage the scientific community to perform experiments, especially in the realm of neuroimaging and neurogenetics, including epigenetics specific to genes, such as oxytocin-vasopressin-orexin-dopamine as well as other reward genes. Possibly this condition may benefit from treatment that targets reward gene polymorphisms to assist in promoting dopamine homeostasis [-].
A number of reviews by Joranby, et al. This decision was fraught with immense emotion by leaders in the field. Recent work in this area reveals continued controversy. These investigators suggest in other work that subjects reporting problems regulating their viewing of visual sexual stimuli VSS who also reported higher sexual desire showed lower late positive potentials LPP in response to VSS. The authors propose that this pattern appears different from substance addiction models [].
Greater desire or wanting rather than liking was further associated with activity in this neural network. This work dovetails with theories of incentive motivation [].
Moreover, Casey, et al. In , Karila, et al. According to these authors, they propose that sexual addiction or hypersexual disorder represents different terms for the same problem.
Certainly we agree that there may be distinct differences between sexual addiction and hypersexuality as noted by Carvalho, et al. In summary, we have proposed that, while there are some differences between hypersexuality and sex addiction, more research is required to appropriately categorize these very important conditions.
We do agree with the work of Walters, et al. While recognizing the controversy, we propose that possible differences and similarities between hypersexuality disorder and sex addiction should be adequately investigated using neuroimaging fMRI, PET, SPECT , optogenetics, candidate and microarray analysis, and epigenetic techniques.
We believe that these investigations will provide the basis for inclusion of hypersexuality as a disorder in future editions of the DSM. Blum is the co-recipient of a grant from the Life Extension Foundation, Ft. Cureus is not responsible for the scientific accuracy or reliability of data or conclusions published herein. All content published within Cureus is intended only for educational, research and reference purposes.
Additionally, articles published within Cureus should not be deemed a suitable substitute for the advice of a qualified health care professional. Do not disregard or avoid professional medical advice due to content published within Cureus.
US patent no. License agreement for genetic testing. License agreement for Synaptamine. License agreement for Brain Reward. Kenneth Blum declare s personal fees, non-financial support and a patent from Rivermend Health. Member of the Scientific Advisory Board. Mark S. Gold declare s non-financial support and a patent from Rivermend Health. Chairman of the Scientific Advisory Board. Kenneth Blum declare s royalties from Impact Genomics.
License agreement for Synaptagenx. Published online Oct See the original article 'Hypersexuality Addiction and Withdrawal: Phenomenology, Neurogenetics and Epigenetics' in volume 7, e Keywords: neurogenetics, epigenetics, reward deficiency syndrome, compulsivity, hypersexuality disorder. Should Hypersexual Disorder be classified as an addiction? Rush B. Medical Inquiries and Observations upon the Disease of the Mind.
New York: Stein and Day; original work published reviewed in Psychopathia Sexualis. Hirshfeld M. New York: Emerson Books; Sexual anomalies: The origins, nature and treatment of sexual disorders. Stroller RJ. New York: Pantheon Books; Perversion: The erotic form of hatred. Allen CA. London: Oxford University Press; A textbook of psychosexual disorders. Ellis A, Sagarin E. New York: Gilbert Press; Nymphomania: A study of the oversexed woman. What happened to hypersexual disorder?
Kafka MP. Arch Sex Behav. Shame, rumination, and self-compassion in men assessed for hypersexual disorder. J Psychiatr Pract. Bancroft J. Oxford, England: Elsevier; Human Sexuality and Its Problems. Third edition. World Health Organization. Geneva: [Jul; ]. Sexual motivation. Singer B, Toates FM. J Sex Research. Hypersexual desire in males: are males with paraphilias different from males with paraphilia-related disorders? Sex Abuse. Sexual strategies theory: an evolutionary perspective on human mating.
Psychol Rev. Natural selection constrains neutral diversity across a wide range of species. A beleaguered king will always have friends to support him.
But beware, as your rule and realm may find trouble when a loyal vassal becomes a bitter rival. Stand ready, increase your prestige, and listen to the world whisper your name in awe. Do you have what it takes to become a Crusader King? Crusader Kings II explores one of the defining periods in world history in an experience crafted by the masters of Grand Strategy.
Medieval Europe is brought to life in this epic title rife with rich strategic and tactical depth. Download Specs Similar to 7. Crusader Kings II Download. Last updated:. October 19, Fifteen additions have been released, introducing new dynasties, including Muslim, Byzantine, etc. New states have appeared, such as Pisa, Venice, Gotland, etc. New tribes have been added, such as the Kidans and Uyghurs.
Different areas are available: ruling, hunting, war, feasts, intrigues, science, theology and many others. Download torrent. The site administration is not responsible for the content of the materials on the resource. If you are the copyright holder and want to completely or partially remove your material from our site, then write to the administration with links to the relevant documents.
Your property was freely available and that is why it was published on our website. The site is non-commercial and we are not able to check all user posts. Crusader Kings 2 online screenshots:.
0コメント